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I don’t know where to begin. There is much I want to write, but can’t express. The last few days have been anxious days, heart wrenching, and emotional. I want to live a life that reflects the glory of Christ, and there are areas of my life that don’t match my God hungry desires. I want to love my life and give myself up for her like Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her. I want to love my children like God loves His children, and yet who I am at times isn’t who I want to be.

Someone can interject and point me to the truth of our Christian lives being a process. I wouldn’t argue, but I am tired of giving less than my best to the Lord. And yet, the tension I feel is that even my best is but filthy rags to the Lord.

I am astounded that the entire time that Israel wandered in the desert, God took care of them. Their sandals never wore out, and they always had enough to eat. I know that God provides for my family today. Certainly I can point to my ministry as the number one example of God’s provision, but things don’t always look good in the check book. It seems the older I get, the more debt I accumulate. I am convinced this isn’t the way things are supposed to be.

Several days ago, I talked about taking God at His Word. I knew going into this study we’ve been undergoing at church, that this would be difficult. I have learned that I haven’t always fully trusted in God to do what He promised to do. Need we doubt God’s promises? I know the answer to that question already, and I am again encouraged from an OT story. You remember the covenant that Abraham and God enter into. Abraham cuts apart an animal, and both parties pass through the split beast. Both parties are saying that if either side fails to uphold their end of the deal than may what happen to the animal, happen to me. God passed through the split carcass. He didn’t have too, but what kind of faith boost must that have been for Abraham to witness God putting his own fidelity on the line. If we remember, God didn’t fail to uphold His end of the bargain with Abraham or Israel, should we doubt that our God will fail to do the same?

There really is something to Jesus’ words to have childlike faith. Children are innocent, trusting, joyful, expectant, and curious. Adults are doubtful, untrusting, complicate life, and worry-full. May we learn the value of child like faith. I know a need a healthy dose of childness today.

Random

I just finished my paper, the Christology in Hebrews. What a paper! I really enjoyed the articles and the reading in general for such a paper.

The semester is winding down, and I need a break. One more writing assignment and one more final, and than I am done until the Fall.

I want to share some thoughts from what our leadership team have been discussing. Our elders, and the other two ministers on staff have gotten to spend some quality time with one another, and every week in our elder’s meetings we are embarking on a study put our by Dr. Lyn Anderson, They Smell Like Sheep. I have read this book twice, and now embarking on a third journey through the pages of his pioneering work on revisioning leadership to consider the Biblical model of leadership as the shephered and sheep relationship. We are two weeks into our study, but I do appreciate the hearts of our guys. They are the most sincere, and God hungry men I know, and it is contagious. One of our assignments in this study has been to pray, but not just the usual prayer for the other men in the group, but Dr. Anderson challenges the participants in this study to pray the psalms. I have begun this prayer adventure. You pray one psalm a day. You begin by reading slowly, and contemplatively. I love the thought of lingering in a text, expectantly until God shows up.

Philippians 2:1-4:3 (Thoughts on community)

Through the style and structure of his letter to the Philippians “community� or friendship language or fellowship or koinonia is important. Paul’s letter to the Philippians is a personal intimate letter which revels the Apostle’s heart and affection for this community, one in which he is obviously well pleased. He asserts the community/fellowship language to help rival the envy and bickering taking place in this community. For Paul to counter this envy and bickering that has infiltrated this congregation, Paul asserts the ethics of the gospel, and the power of the Spirit as the sole unifying mark of this community. Because of the power of the gospel, and the presence of the Spirit, there is no place for rivalry or envy. A large portion of Philippians, “2:1-4:3 is an extended demonstration of how Christian fellowship should shape the community’s identity. A statement of principle (2:1-4) is followed by a series of examples that illustrate it: Jesus (2:6-11), Paul (2:17), Timothy (2:19-24), Epaphroditus (2:25-30), and Paul again, this time in contrast to self-seekers (3:2-16). A call for the imitation of these examples (3:17-21) is followed by the specific application to individual disputants (4:2-3)� (Luke Timothy Johnson, The Writings of the New Testament: An Interpretation, 374).

Wouldn’t our communites do well to take note and hear Paul’s message to church in Philippi? While bickering and envy had infiltrated the community, Paul asserts gospel ethics and the power of the Spirit as the sole unifying mark of the community. Boy, if we let the power of the gospel and the presence of the Spirit to take precedent in our communities today, I think we would avoid damaging divisions and splintering cells of isolated sectarian believers. There is no place for the asserting of self in our spiritual communites, our example is that of Christ who did not exploit his rights, but made himself nothnig, taking the nature of a slave. The church would do well to train more disciples to become slaves of Christ, having been transformed by the gospel and lead by the Spirit instead of self-centered consumers of religious goods.

Beyond my wildest dreams…

Forgive my giddiness, but I hosted a meeting last night after church, an LTC post-convention meeting. I went better than I thought, far better. For much of the pre-convention work, and planning, I felt overwhelmed and could have easily been called “dufus,” but last night everyone was positive and geared up to launch out in new and unsettled water for our congregation and begin earlier than we previously had, and to begin to incorporate LTC into the larger church system. I left the meeting encouraged and more certain of my place of leadership.

May we not forget the God who is able to do immeasurably more than all we ask or imagine (Eph 3:21).

As we begin our week, I ask you to pray for a dear brother in the Lord, and one who is struggling. Lift up Fred Peatross to our Father. I am not sure his struggle, but his ministry and writings have been a blessing to many and he needs a healing touch from heaven.

Also, don’t forget to lift our brothers and sisters worldwide who don’t live in the comfortable and materialistic societies we do, and who don’t know where their next meal will come from.

Man attacked by bear again…

Alaskan man attacked by bear again…

Read the story here.

May we not forget…

Mike Cope shared some thoughts today on his blog that I couldn’t help but mention.

Let’s join these precious children of God who are going overseas to pray, and seek God’s direction in two very needed mission fields (Rwanda and the Sudan). Let’s pray not only for those that God has sent to go, but may we also be as so bold to pray for change in these countries to which these few are going. Prayer, and the passion of a few chosen souls can impact a country for good. Will we join them in their work?

I also urge you to check out Greg Kendall Ball’s blog. He and his wife are among those the Lord has raised up to go. God bless you and your mission Greg.

Greek Mystery and Eastern Religions and Gnosticism…

Greek Mystery and Eastern Religions

According to Ferguson, the mystery religions…were bound to the traditional civic cult…initiation in a mystery was usually a matter of individual choice – although the initiation ceremony itself was collective, not individual – and so was a significant expression of personal religionâ€? (Ferguson, 251). Mysteries were native to Greece, but many of the eastern cults adopted mystery initiations when they entered the Greek world…The eastern cults experienced progressive Hellenization in the Greek world and Romanization in the west. The Hellenization of cult was a cultural matter; Romanization was largely a political matterâ€? (Ferguson, 251). When encountering this topic for the first time, it is necessary to define mystery and distinguish our post-modern mindset, “mysterion sing.) meant ‘secret rite’ but had the added sense of ‘something secret’ without any ceremonial associations. It could be used of any secret – philosophy, magic, alchemy, even sexual intercourse (‘the mysteries of Aphrodite’) – and sometimes to be nothing more than a figure of speech. The verb (myeo) in the passive often means ‘to be initiated.’ The idea of secrecy is more prominent that in telete (‘performance’ or ‘sacred rite’), but it is not absolutely necessary… ‘Mystery’ is being used here in its technical sense of a secret cult in which the uninitiated could not participateâ€? (Ferguson, 251). Ferguson, also reveals that initiation was an objective experience (Ferguson 251-252). To further clarify the meaning of “mysteryâ€? to aid our understanding for the background of early Christianity, as Ferguson states, “we may define ‘mystery’ as used here as a secret rite by which selected individuals were brought into a special relationship with a deity and assured certain benefitsâ€? (Ferguson, 252). It is clear that by their very name that what was done in these mystery cults, or secret cults is largely the work of conjecture, however, “authors ancient and modern classify three elements in the rites of initiation: (1) ‘things enacted’ (dromena), (2) ‘things said’ (legomena), and (3) ‘things shown’ (deiknymena) – the most important part of the ceremonyâ€? (Ferguson, 252).

Just as early Greek religion and the function of deities had their roots in agriculture so to “the original Greek mysteries were rooted in the soil and related to the cycle of nature. Most of the local mysteries did not go beyond rites to assure fertility, safety or the like� and “mysteries were in earlier times dedicated to Demeter� (Ferguson, 253).

Mysteries could be local or universal and “in the first century A.D. the only mysteries whose extension may be called universal were the mysteries of Dionysus and those of the eastern gods, especially Isis� (Ferguson, 252). One such local mystery that had “acquired considerable fame and was even transplanted to other sites in Hellenistic and early Roman times was that of the ‘Mother of the gods’ and the Cabiri at Samothrace� (Ferguson, 253).

Moving from local mysteries to universal mysteries, we will first look at the Eleusinian mysteries, “they were local in the sense that one had to come to Eleusis in order to receive initiation. They were universal in Roman times in being open to all who could come to Eleusis, afford the initiation, and meet the standards of purity� (Ferguson, 254). They Eleusinian mysteries went from being controlled by one family and then made public property and it should be noted that “there was a great increase interest in initiation at Eleusis from the first century B.C. to the second century A.D…Syncretism affected Eleusis at the end, for the last known hierophant (leader in the initiation) was also a priest of Mithras� (Ferguson, 254-255). An interesting characteristic of the more important mysteries is the cult myth which was not a secret (Ferguson, 255).

“The Dionysiac mysteries were the only new mysteries of Greek origin that spread widely in Hellenistic-Roman times…their celebration was not confined to any one locality� (Ferguson, 260). Some general features of the Dionysiac mysteries …in classical times are known from Euripides’ play The Bacchae. A period of fasting preceded the winter festival. Weakened by the fasting, the devotees in wild ecstatic dance to the accompaniment of the aulos worked themselves into a delirium. In this frenzy, according to the prevalent interpretation, they ate raw flesh with the blood in it of animals that were seized…since Dionysus was believed to appear in animal form and to be present in the wine, eating the flesh from a living animal and drinking wine could be understood as incorporating the god and his power within� (Ferguson, 261).

Egyptian Deities: Isis, Osiris, and Sarapis

The Egyptian deities Isis, Osiris and Sarapis “were the first of the eastern deities to come important in the Hellensitic world� (Ferguson, 266). “Osiris was important as the vegetation god and king of the underworld; Isis his sister and wife and the mother of Horus. She took the leading role in the expansion of the cult outside Egypt. TheGreeks contributed two ideas of great importance to the success of Isis. They identified her with Demeter (and later Aphrodite), so making her the most important mother goddess of the Hellenistic world to whim culture and mysteries were attributed. Further they elevated her to an all-encompassing deity…and the propaganda for claimed that other goddesses were but manifestations of her� (Ferguson, 266).

Sarapis, as Ferguson notes, “replaced Osiris in the Greek world…Sarapis was portrayed with the features of Zeus, only with a milder more kindly appearance (similar to Asclepius), and is often acclaimed on inscriptions as ‘one Zeus Sarapis.’� Sarapis is “distinguished from Zeus by his head piece – identified as a modius (a container for measuring grain) or a calathus (a basket for carrying fruit), either of which served as a symbol of fertility� (Ferguson, 268-269). There weren’t any doubts that the following of these Egyptian deities turned into a cult movement. “The worship of Sarapis became an official civic cult about 180 B.C. and a public temple was built, subscribed by the private associations but now having priests annually elected in the Greek manner. Immigration and political considerations…were frequent factors in the spread of eastern cults� (Ferguson, 269). Interestingly enough, Ferguson notes that although these eastern cults were Hellenized they never fully lost their Egyptian flavor. “Authorities in Rome resisted the spread of the Egyptian gods, whose temples had a reputation for immorality� (Ferguson, 269), but this attitude changed when “Caligua erected a temple to Isis on the Campus Martius in A.D. 38, but it was only when Domitian made the temple one of Rome’s most splendid monument that Isis and Sarapis began to enjoy uninterrupted imperial favor� (Ferguson, 269-270).

Not much is known about the initiations into the various mysteries, but Ferguson does point out that “the myth of Osiris has been preserved in Hellenized form from Plutarch� (Ferguson, 270). The importance of the Eleusinian mysteries to the other mysteries is seen in the way the Egyptian cults patterned their initiations after the Eleusinian mysteries.

Pertinent to our discussion of Eastern deities are the Phoenician Deities Astarte and Adonis� The Phoenician Asarte was essentially the same as the Syrian Atargatis and the Phrygian Cybele. The Greeks identified her with Aphrodite. Astarte was the consort of the supreme god of the Phoenician pantheon, Baal Shamim (‘Lord of Heaven’)…Adonis, became quite popular in the Greek world, but was not nearly so important in Phoenicia as was Astarte� (Ferguson, 277). The Phoenician deities do not seem have the significance in the history of early Christianity as the Greek and Roman deities.

Syrian Deities: Atargatis and others

“Each city of Syria had its Baal (‘Lord’ or ‘Master’) and his consort. The Baal was the master of the country and was responsible for its fertility, but he resided in the firmament� (Feguson, 280). The Syrian deities’ presence were also felt in the Roman world and “the best known of the Syrian goddesses was Atargatis of Hierapolis, identified simply as ‘the Syrian Goddess.’ Atargatis herself was a conflation of the three major deities of the older Canaanite Pnatheon – Astarte, Anath, and Asherah – respectively goddesses of love, war, and fecundity, but often merging with each other. The great goddesses of the Near East – Astarte, Cybele, and Atargatis – were characterized as goddesses of nature, fertility and motherhood and as rulers of animals� (Ferguson, 280).

Phrygian Deties: Cybele and Attis
Cybele was the more important and she was similar to the other mother goddesses of the Near East who included Ma from Commagene (identified by the Romans with Bellona, goddess of war) and Bendis from Thrace (identified by the Greeks with Artemis)…Cybele was occasionally called Agdistis, but the latter was sometimes worship separately� (Ferguson, 281). Attis on the other hand was considered to be a god of vegetation and was Cybele’s youthful lover. Ferguson notes, “that cult of Cybele was the first of the eastern religions to received officially into Rome at the time of the crisis posed to Italy by Hannibal. The Senate officially invited the Great Mother to Rome in response to a consultation of the Sibylline Books. Presumably the introduction of this foreign cult was intended to gain a new emotional outlet…Cybele is Hellenistic-Roman art is generally shown seated on a throne, wearing a mural crown (as city protectress) or the calathus (for fertility), carrying a patera and tympanum, and flanked by lions or holding one in her lap. Attis is frequently shown as a largely naked youth but wearing the Phrygian cap� (Ferguson, 282-283). Emasculation or the shedding of blood was associated with these two cults. Ferguson makes an interesting statement about the importance of these cults for the backgrounds of Christianity, “much attention has been drawn to the taurobolium in the cult of Attis, although nearly all of the evidence belongs to the second century and later. The word meant capturing a bull by thwoing a rope around it, but the word came to mean a particular sacrifice of a bull� (Ferguson, 285).

Persian Deities: Mithras

Ferguson notes, “that only one god with a Persian name became important in the Roman Empire – Mithra (in Latin and Greek, Mithras)…Literary refrences by others to Mithraism in the Roman period are meager, so the religion is known almost exclusively from the numerous Mithraic sanctuaries and their art that have been discovered� (Ferguson, 287).

We owe much of the theorizing of the origins of this cult to Franz Cumont, “who traced the religion to ancient Persians. According to this theory, the Aryans, who worshipped Mithras carried him to India and Iran…as the worship of Mithras spread into the Hellenized world, it borrowed from astrology and the mysteries…the central cult of Mithraic sanctuaries was Mithras slaying a bull…the positioning of images in the scene has been shown to correspond to the locations of constellations at a certain time�(Ferguson, 287-289). The scene of the bull slaying has “cosmic significance, indicating the end of the Age of Taurus, when the spring equinox occurred in the constellation of the Bull, and the beginning of a new age when the spring equinox entered Aries� (Ferguson, 290).

Gnosticism.

Ferguson gives us insight into the philosophical ideology known as Gnosticism. The Greek noun gnosis means ‘knowledge,’ especially perception, insight, acquaintance. Plato coined the word gnostikos for what gives intellectual knowledge in contrast to practical skill…The first attested use for persons in a distinct social entity occurs in the Christian anti-heretical writer Irenaues in the late second century…The word referred to a school of thought and then to its members� (Ferguson, 300-301). There is quite a bit of debate centering on what constitute the beliefs of Gnosticism, however, “the most nearly common features of the sources…are a distinction between the creator(s) and controllers of the material world and the ultimate transcendent divine being, an interest in speculation about the nature of divinity and the heavenly realm, consideration of the cause of the human condition with a focus on the soul’s eventual transcendence of the created order, patterns of spirituality consistent with this worldview…�(Ferguson, 301).

What was understood of Gnosticism has been furthered in recent years “by the discovery of a ‘library of Gnostic writings’ near Nag Hammadi� for previously much of what is known of Gnosticism was found through the writings of the church fathers in the passionate defense of traditional church doctrine. Some of the more famous Gnostic works that have been discovered are:

The Gospel of Thomas “a collection of 112-118 sayings attributed to Jesus…The Gospel of Thomas is perhaps the earliest of the new texts in the collection demonstrates the existence of collections of sayings of Jesus (a sayings gospel) in the early church� (Ferguson, 305)

The Gospel of Truth “may be identified with a work that name Irenaeus attributes to the followers of Valentinus…not properly a ‘Gospel’ but a meditation on the truth of redemption. Its theme is that the human state is ignorance, and salvation is by knowledge imparted by Jesus� (Ferguson, 305).

Another Gnostic Gospel is the Gospel of Philip, a “sayings of discourse gospel, also from Valentinian circles� (Ferguson, 305).

The Apocryphon of John “appears to have been the most popular of the Gnostic works� (Ferguson, 306)

The Epistle to Rheginus, On the Resurrection “sets forth a position close to that of orthodox in terminology but emphasizes a resurrection of the soul� (Ferguson, 306)

The Apocryphon of James, “like many documents in the collection, is a post resurrection revelation of Jesus. He gives blessings and woes through Peter and James� (Ferguson, 306)

The Hypostasis of Archons, “describes the effots of the world rulers to deceive humankind in Genesis 1-6� (Ferguson, 306)

The Triparetite Tractae, “is the most ambitious and comprehensive theological undertaking in the Nag Hammadi corpus� (Ferguson, 306)

Eugnostos the Blessed and The Sophia of Jesus Christ, “are two versions of the same document, thje former a letter by a teacher to his discplkies and the latter a revelation discourse of Jesus to his followers�(Ferguson, 306).

There are many questions to the origins of Gnosticism, however, “most forms of Gnosticism that we know seem to contain elements from pagan thought, Judaism, and Christianity. Elements of Gnosticism bear striking similarities to Neopythagoreanism and Middle Platonism suggesting that some form of Greek speculative thought brought about Gnosticism� (Ferguson, 307).

Some scholars see a relationship to Judaism, especially in light of the high view of the Old Testament in many Gnostic works. “The early church fathers traced Gnostic heresies back to Simon Magus in Samaria (Acts 8)�… “but Gnosticism seems to have grown up concurrently with Christianity in a similar environment (but from different roots), with the two having some interactions in the first century before Gnosticism developed into a separate religion in the second century…modern scholars have delineated two principle expressions of Gnosticism – Valentinianism, which was more Christian and hence of special concern to the church fathers, and Sethianism, apparently an earlier form and possibly non-Christian in origin� (Ferguson 307-308).

Pertinent to our discussion here is to point out some of the general characteristics of Gnosticism: (The following will be found on Ferguson, 310 and 311)
(1) The problem of evil. Several Gnostic systems ‘kicked the problem upstairs’ by locating it ultimately in the divine rather than in human beings
(2) Sense of alienation from the world.
(3) Desire for special and intimate knowledge of the secrets of the universe. The Gnostic salvation was from ignorance and not from sin.
(4) Dualism. There are different kinds of dualism: for example, ethical dualism (good and evil…), eschatological or supernatural dualism (this age and the age to come…), and psychological dualism (body and soul)Gnosticism isn an amalgam of psychological and ethical dualism with a cosmic dualism of this material world and the super celestial spiritual world
(5) Cosmology. The pleroma or divine world contains gradations of being that are emanations or devolutions from the first principle
(6) Anthropology. Valentinianism offered three classes of human beings according to their nature: the pneumatics or spirituals who had the divine spark in themselves and were destined for salvation, the psychics who could be saved by the ministrations of the church, good works, and the hyllics who belonged to the material world and were hopelessly lost
(7) Radically realized eschatology…the kingdom of God was an interior kingdom. As a religion of personal salvation it taught that the pneumatic experienced his ture condition now and at death went immediately to the pleroma
(8) Ethical implications. As the pneumatic was free from fate, so he was free from the moral law.� Some of course took this extreme measures, while the “more characteristic deduction from Gnostic premises, however, was asceticism. One sought to frustrate the flesh by denying it.

While Gnosticism especially in the second century “showed greater interest in leadership roles for women and less interest in structured hierarchy� this is “stands in contrast the distrust of the feminine that is basic to Gnostic thought� (Ferguson, 311).
The record of the New Testament writings give striking evidence to the combating of the Gnosticism that was prevalent in the second century. “Colossians and the Pastoral Epistles oppose errorists who served angelic mediators, practiced asceticism, had secret teachings, claimed superior knowledge, and denied the Christian doctrines of creation and resurrection…The Joahinnine literature too opposes teachers who had left the Christian fold, denied the incarnation, held an individualistic and libertine view of salvation and emphasized knowledge. The troubles at Corinth over the resurrection and enthusiastic spiritual gifts have also been traced to Gnostic thinking� (Ferguson, 312).

Works Cited:
1. Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd. Ed. Eerdmands, 2003

A brief survey of Rome

A brief survey of Rome

“By the end of the third century B.C. the shadow of Rome was falling across the eastern Mediterranean. Rome fought its first Macedonian War in 215 as incidental to the Second Punic War and 212 entered into alliance with Pergamum. The last of the Hellenistic kingdoms absorbed by Rome was Egypt in 30 B.C., at which time the Hellenistic Age passed into the Roman� (Ferguson 16).

Similar to an Athens several hundred years prior, “Rome began as a city-state, but different from the Greek city. For example, freed slaves became citizens, unlike in Greece� and as a result of this Rome more readily extended citizenship to those in other cities� (Ferguson, 21). The Romans were masters of absorbing or borrowing another’s cultures into their own and making it their own. “Rome was a borrower – culturally and religiously – but it could put its own stamp on things…when one became a citizen, he was ‘made a Roman’� (Ferguson, 21). Very similar to the United states in the 19th century, Rome became “the great melting pot of the ancient world, yet in the end, nothing was melting but the pot� (Ferguson, 21). The Romans held in high esteem their law, “if the for Greece the measure of all things was man, for the Roman the measure of all things was law� (Ferguson, 22). This love of law set the Romans apart from the Greeks. The Roman ideal “was great statesmanship, not the search for the good, the true, and the beautiful, as in Greece…the real greatness of Roman policy lay in the government’s interest in people� (Ferguson, 22).

Rome and the West

“Carthage was Rome’s chief rival in the western Mediterranean…Rome fought three major wars with Carthage known as the Punic Wars� (Ferguson, 22). Out of these great wars arise such great military legends as Hannibal, the Alp crossing Carthaginian and Rome’s own great leader Scipio Africanus, the defeater of Hannibal. Of these Punic Wars, “the third Punic War (149-146 B.C.) brought the final defeat of Carthage, and all of the western Mediterranean was now in Roman hands� (Ferguson, 22).

Rome and the East

Although Rome is becoming more and more powerful, they do find themselves at war with Greece and other countries of the Mediterranean. Rome’s strength and power were realized when “within a week Rome had defeated Macedonia, taken Egypt under its protection, and forced Syria to submit to its wishes…Rome this took over the political and cultural heritage of Alexander west of the Euphrates and became his real successor� (Ferguson, 23). As Rome took over control of these areas they didn’t attempt to changed the cultural situation or attempt to make Roman culture the norm, Greek prevailed, “Horace stated the situation epigrammatically: ‘Captured Greece took captive her savage conqueror and brought civilization to rustic Latium� (Ferguson, 24).

Roman Social Classes, Relationships, and Morality.

Rome was an Empire of varying social classes. As Ferguson points out, “Roman society was stratified but not closes. Military service, among other things, made possible a certain upward social mobility and the favor or disfavor of the emperor affected the standing of many families� (Ferguson, 55). In Rome there was an aristocracy, made up of the senatorial and equestrian orders. One’s source of wealth and social standing depended on the ownership of land… “social class was not always the same as social status. Wealth, education, and ability could confer status and influence apart from social class� (Ferguson, 56). The senatorial order “played little part in the government of the empire, …was important for providing the chief civilian and military administrators� (Ferguson, 56). Ferguson (56) also notes that there was a minimum property qualification of 250,000 denarii for admission to the senate, and these men wore a purple stripe on the toga. Following the senatorial class was the equestrian order or the knights “with a property qualification of only 100,000 denarii. These men were often well educated, wealthy, and related to senatorial families (Ferguson, 57). Acquiring wealth or rising through the ranks of the military made social mobility a reality for Romans as they could enter into the equestrian order. Some of these men would have been merchants, for senators saw business and trade as a below them. Another group to be considered for understanding Roman social classes were those at the top of municipal aristocracies, these were the decurions. “Decurions had to be rich…paid heavily for the prestige of civic magistracy and a leading role in the affairs of the community� (Ferguson, 57). Another class of “Roman citizens who did not belong to the senatorial or equestrian orders, or in other cities those…who did not belong to the order of decurions, were called plebeians� (Ferguson, 58). Other groupings of people include, “free persons� who “might be classified as citizens, residents, transients and rural folk.� There were also the “peregrine, citizens of any city other than Rome, to whom Rome gave special recognition, and metics, resident aliens in Greek cities who were given a recognized status distinct from other foreigners� (Ferguson, 58). An important role in Roman society was played by the freedmen. “In Rome the freed slave of a citizen had citizenship� and some avenues of occupation, such as roman magistracies or priests, were closed to former slaves, but former slaves could amass great wealth and their sons could obtain the title equestrian rank (Ferguson, 58).

An interesting aspect of Roman society was that of relationships. One such relationship that deserves our look is that of patron-client relationships. “Patronage was a reciprocal relationship, in which both patron and client had duties to each other, was a personal and not a business or commercial relationship, existed between parties of different status, and was a voluntary (not a legal) relationship that could be initiated by either party, but the social conventions were stronger than any regulations of law� (Ferguson, 67). There were a set or rules that governed this patron-client relationship and a “patron’s importance was gauged by the number who attended the morning audience� (Ferguson, 67). The main role of the patron was that of money lender would open his home to his clients and when he could, would offer legal protection. Patron-client relationships were not for the higher classes only, “the relationship operated on all levels and in various groupings� (Ferguson, 67). Ferguson (67) also points out that this sort of relationship existed in other areas for example, “…literary patronage (support of an author by a wealthy person), political patronage (client kings) and economic patronage (of the rural poor).� The Romans were also very big into friendships, for friendship was the ideal for social relationships. The ideal called for considering all things as common property and sharing one mind or one soul…holding mutual love and kindly affection for each other…allowed for mutual exhortation and frankness of speech…and a willingness to share other’s troubles and to sacrifice self for the other’s benefits� (Ferguson, 68). One other aspect of Roman relationships that is interesting and foundational for our understanding of the background of early Christianity are social networks, and their importance to an individual’s identity. “Social networks developed from kinship, intermarriage, membership in the same clubs, common social status such as holding high offices, and neighborhood and regional connections� (Ferguson, 68).

Morality

When you think of the Roman empire, a people with high morality is not the picture most likely to come to mind. In fact, “several features of the social organization contributed to the debasing of morality� (Ferguson, 69). These features would include, “slavery which gave occasion for cruelty and sexual license, the punishing of criminals… gladiatorial contests and wild beast fights…reflect a cruel and brutal outlook. The Roman policy of ‘bread and games’ to keep the populace content prevented initiative and emphasized sensual satisfaction� (Ferguson, 69). With all the rampant sexual immorality in the first century, it easy to see why the Apostle Paul, and the other New Testament writers took aim at sexual sin. Sharing the Gospel with Gentiles presented a special challenge since Roman culture was immersed in sexual promiscuity and the like, the task of the New Testament writers was not just sharing Christ’s message of reconciliation their task included deinculturating a people who were raised with out Biblical morality. As we mentioned earlier, friendship was highly regarded in the Roman empire, and “homosexuality was a common result in Greek society, which considered the noblest form of love to be friendship between men� (Ferguson, 70). Roman religion didn’t help with morality for “all kinds of immoralities were associated with the gods… and there were over one thousand ‘sacred prostitutes’ at the temple of Aphrodite at Corinth� (Ferguson, 70). Not all Romans lived in such blatant immoral ways, “inscriptions on grave monuments have been an important source for giving a just estimate of moral virtue in the ancient world…the praises of the kindness and faithfulness of husbands and wives in these records are a reminder that many people lived lives of quiet virtue. Not all were given to the sexual sins that appear have been so prominent in the society� (Ferguson, 70).

Works Cited:
1. Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd. Ed. Eerdmands, 2003

Various cults permeating the Ancient Greek world

Before we dive fully into our discussion of the various cults permeating the Ancient Greek world, “The religion of Ancient Greece had no creed, and although a certain actions were irreligious and there generally condemned as displeasing to the super natural powers, there was nothing like a code or system of morality which must be accepted by everyone who worshipped Athena or Zeus� (Ferguson, 149). There is no question that the Ancient Greeks and their predecessors were religious people. As a matter of fact, “Greek religion was decidedly a thing of every day life; otherworldliness did not for the main trunk of the tree� (Ferguson, 149). Also pertinent to our understanding of the period, is the notion that “the essence of religion was the rite, which was thought of as a process for securing and maintaining correct relations with the world of uncharted forces around man, and the myth, which gave the traditional reason for the rite and the traditional (but changing) view of those forces� (Ferguson, 150).

As Ferguson points out on page 150, “Homer lies at the foundation of the Greek tradition, and his prominence in the educational curriculum until the end of antiquity means that he is fundamental for Greek religious thought in the Hellenistic and Roman periods. Homer’s writings were not inspired in the same way the Jewish and Christian Scriptures are, but Homer’s influence on religious thought is similar. Homer’s two greatest pieces of literature are his epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey.

The Greek gods is where we turn our attention next. Ferguson notes that the “Greek gods were the most anthropomorphic of the gods of any people with the exception of those in Scandinavian mythology� (153). The Greek gods were distinct from human beings, were immortal, and immoral… “generally each of the deities has his or her own special function. However much they may have human characteristics, they remain superior to humankind…The gods formed something of a divine society living around Zeus on Mount Olympus. Theirs was the highest layer in the social system; their society was a reflection of the organization of society in the heroic age which formed an earthly counterpart of the divine community� (Ferguson, 153). Those deities living under the earth or on the earth were “called chthonian� (Ferguson, 153). Ferguson points out that much of what was a part of Homer’s epic adventures were seen in the later period Hellenistic worship.

Another ancient Greek writer that is important for the shaping of early Hellenistic religious thought is Hesiod. Ferguson points out that among the interests of Hesiod were justice and work and “his principle writing, The Works and Days, lays down various agricultural precepts and discusses auspicious and inauspicious days for many events� (Ferguson, 158). Hesiod is also important to our discussion because he attempted “to systematize the account of the gods and arrange them in a family tree� (Ferguson, 158).

According to Ferguson (158), “the cult of the heroes appears for the first time in Hesiod. Heroes was a courtesy title that refereed to someone who was supposed to have existed but after death remained powerful enough to protects those on earth and this was someone worthy of homage…Heroes were worshipped in particular localities; their power was associated with their remains and the place of their burial. They belonged to the chthonian (underworld deities).�

A related aspect of religious worship and pertinent to our discussion of Cults are the Greek sanctuaries or houses for the deities. “The first Greek temples appeared in the archaic period…and temples were set within a temenos, a sacred precinct set aside for a deity, frequently with a spring (for purifications) and a grove of trees. The altar was placed in front of the temple; it was one indispensable item at a shrine, since it was necessary for sacrifice, the central aspect of worship� (Ferguson, 160). Different from how we would understand temples, these Greek temples were not places for the assembly of worshippers, but “one went to the temple for votive offerings (gifts made in fulfillment of a vow…) not usually for private prayer� (Ferguson, 161). As many of the divine characteristics of Greek deities pertained to agriculture, it is no surprise to learn then tha “Greek religion essentially was based on the agrarian cycle� and “the great majority of the festivals were related to agriculture� (Ferguson, 161).

Greek society was distinctly different than our own, and “for most Greeks true human life meant the life of the individual in community…social organization was according to family, tribe, and city; and the same applied to the organization of worship…when a person founded a city or colony, he was often honored as its hero, and the official cult of the founder was a unifying factor in civil life� (Ferguson, 161). The ACLU would of gasped at the thought of “every public meeting of the people was preceded by purifications, sacrifice, and prayer� (Ferguson, 162).

Codes of sacred law being written down helped to customize their religious affairs. Another interesting trend was “not to bother Zeus about details. Rather, it was much better to have a local hero specializing in such things� (Ferguson, 162).

We will now look at some specific cults.

According to Ferguson (162) “The cult of Dionysus became firmly established in the Greek world in the seventh century B.C. Dionysus became especially associate with wine, but he was not the god of the vine alone but of vegetation and fertility…with the phallus as his symbol.� One of the good legacies this cultic worship left on humanity was the origin of comedy and tragedy. “Worship of Dionysus was characterized by ecstatic frenzy� eventually being toned down enough by written codes for ritual and the like that this cult will become a regular favorite in the Greek world (Ferguson, 162).

Orphism, “a reform movement of Dionysiac worship, whose central rite, was the dismembering and eating of animal representing Dionysus…began in the sixth century� (162-163). You won’t find a systematic theology or treatises on doctrine, Orphism is a “movement characterized by common concerns and a like mindedness� (Ferguson, 162). Orphism helped to bring into Greek thought for the first time that “the next life was geared in a significant way to each person’s action in this life. Orphism was an attempt to explain the human situation� and much of the influence can be seen in the negative outlook on humanity’s presence on earth, and an eager desire for an early death that is the subject of the poetry of the fifth century B.C. (Ferguson, 164).

The fifth and fourth century B.C. saw the traditional religious expression change. The classical age is highlighted however, by the magnificent building projects of one of the most famous Greek temples, the Parthenon. “The individualism noted in connection with the influence of Alexander the Great had its roots in the late fifth century. The trend to look to lesser gods and heroes rather than to great deities of the state increased. New cults were introduced: most spectacular in its spread was the cult of the healing hero Asclepius� (Ferguson, 164). While at the same time hero worship was on the rise, philosophy and education in this arena quickly became the “religion of the educated� (Ferguson, 165). This cultural and religious shift helped those in this time to begin applying “the outward forms of religions to new loyalties – ruler worship and the personification of abstractions like Tyche (luck)� (Ferguson, 165). It is clear from Paul’s experience in Lystra that traditional religious worship and expression was alive and well in the first century (Ferguson, 165).

As was noted in the last discussion, as Rome continued to gain dominance in the Mediterranean world, they were great borrowers of culture, “thus temples, cult images, and methods of divination were taken over from� those they took over (Ferguson, 166). Ferguson (167) also points out that “what early mythology the Romans had was largely subsumed under Greek Mythology…but not all gods crossed over so easily into pre-existing Roman categories.

The Roman “state corresponded to the family. Affairs were handled by small groups known as collegia, which had responsibility for the different religious activities…During the Republic there were five major colleges of priests: the pontiffs, the augurs, the ‘Board of Ten’ who kept the Sibylline Books, the Haruspices, and the Fetiales� (Ferguson, 167, 169). It cannot be stressed enough the states influence in all things Roman, especially worship, as Ferguson cites, “religion was largely a function of the state� (Ferguson, 169). It is also important to stress again that “during the empire the essential spirit of religion was Greek. Rome’s greatest contribution was creating security and uniting the people in one state. Rome, with little of its own to give in religion, filled in its skeleton of religions with a Greek content; the old native forms continued in the various countries, but the spirit was Greek� (Ferguson, 173).

I think it would be important for our discussion of religion in Rome and to the overall conversation of Cults for us to consider some general characteristics of religion during Hellenistic-Roman times. What follows is a brief summary of Ferguson pages 173-177:
(1)“Greco-Roman paganism was nonexclusive.� Syncretism was nothing to raise an eyebrow to.
(2)“The identification of deities tended to reduce their number and contributed to the monotheistic trend of though. Female deities tended to be identified with one another, and the chief god of each people was thought of as the same.�
(3)“The anthropomorphism of classical Greek religion weakened in the worship of power…This worship of power lies behind the phenomenon noted by Nock and… ‘astrology, magic, and the expression of devotion to the Emperor were the universal phenomena of paganism in Roman times’�
(4)“On the other hand there was a deification of virtues or benefits (with a corresponding personification of these abstract ideas). The Greek spirit did not leave things indefinite, so there was a tendency (much increased in Roman times ) to name a benefit after the god from which it came (as grain was called Ceres) or to designate the deity by the specific type of power manifested – as Salus (salvation), Libertas (liberty), and especially Victoria (victory)� other such divine personifications would include concord, peace and luck.
(5)“The tendency to monotheism influenced the terminology of pagan authors but was seldom carried through consistently.�
(6)“Since lesser gods and intermediary powers were identified with demons, there was a demonizing of religion. The word demons did not have the negative connotations it does today, but as unlucky happenings were attributed to intermediary beings or forces it began to acquire even in pagan thought something of a pejorative sense.�
(7)“The power of fate was very strongly felt in the early empire…It found philosophical justification in Stoicism and was even worshipped as a deity.�
(8)The belief in fate was often linked with the belief in the influence of stars, so astrology came to prominence.�
(9)Magic was another popular expression of human relations with the powers of the universe.�
(10)“The corporate nature or social side or religion was not lost in the Hellenistic-Roman periods. That religion is a private matter of one’s own belief and practice would not have been advocated in antiquity.�
(11)“There was, however new prominence to chosen relationships. Cult associations flourished in Hellenistic ties; associations of artisans, athletes, actors, etc., were prominent under the empire, and even these has a religious aspect.�
(12)“Morality was not closely associated with religion.�

Ferguson reveals that “excavations at Delos supplement literary evidence in confirming a continuation of features of the domestic cult for the Hellenistic Age� (Ferguson, 178). Such homes had altars to “Zeus Herkeios� …a stone pillar was erected near the door was dedicated to Apollo Patroos or Phratrios (Apollo as the protector of all relatives)� (Ferguson, 178). Because Greek houses were built with a door floor it was common for each house to have a protective spirit, which Ferguson tells us was often called the “Agathos Daimon (the Good Demon or Spirit)� which was often symbolized as a non-poisonous snake. Central to the domestic cult was “the hearth�… “the meal began and ended with a religious act: before the meal Greeks offered a few pieces of food on the hearth; after the meal they poured out a libation of unmixed wine to the Agathos Daimon� (Ferguson, 178). Domestic piety was infused into every aspect of one’s life.

An interesting aspect of Greek thought was they “thought the countryside was filled with supernatural powers, with demons…inhabiting mountains, forests, trees, stones, rivers, and fountains…the wilder stretches of the countryside were inhabited by male demons thought of as half-human, half-animal in appearance – centaurs, sileni, and satyrs. The most popular of these was Pan, son of Hermes, who had the legs and face of goat� (Ferguson, 178-179). Some of these deities derived their names from attempts to placate such supernatural forces, such as Hermes, (“his name comes from the stone heap in which he lived…many of the nature deities, such as the centaurs, did not receive a cult. Some such as Artemis – the leader of the nymphs – and Hermes became important deities� (Ferguson, 179).

The Roman domestic cult is also evidenced by excavations done in Pompeii revealing its continuation in the first century. “Near the entrance to a Roman house was a niche that served as a shrine to the lares, who were watchful, protective spirits of the family and household. The lararium (household shrine) was a wooden cupboard or a stone or masonry niche or aedicule for images or paintings of the household deities…snakes were associated with the lares…The penates were the guardians of the pantry; they were closely associated with the lares and Vesta (goddess of the hearth). The lares and penates, with Janus (god of the doorway) and Vesta, protected the home. The lares were offered fire, the family genius wine, and the penates incense� (Ferguson, 180).

Lower classes were not exempt from the domestic cult, and an important deity, especially in the second and third centuries…was Silvanus, god pf agriculture and forests� (Ferguson, 180).

The lares appear to have a larger than the home fame, “the lares were worshipped at crossroads as protectors of travelers, corresponding in this respect to the Greek Hermes. When Augustus undertook the restoration of Roman religion, he reorganized the cult of the lares compitales. Rome was divided into districts, and at the principle crossroads were erected shrines…� (Ferguson, 180).

Ferguson makes a striking statement about the influence of the objects of the domestic cults even into the church. “In the Latin west and in the Greek east the church won only by detouring the traditional piety to other objects. The martyrs and the saints received the homage once given to the heroes and nature and household spirits…when Christianity replaced paganism, the saints took over the functions of specialized local deities. The situation may be described as ‘the old firm doing the same business at the same place under a new name and a new management� (Ferguson, 182).

Civic Cults

Civic cults were a reality in the empire, where “each city has its own patron deity or deities.� If the city was powerful, the deity became pan-Hellenistic, eg., Athena. Other cults, not properly civic, had an international character based on a legend (e.g., Delos – the birthplace of Apollo and Artemis) and oracle (Delphi – Apollo), or ancient games (Olympia – Zeus� (Ferguson, 182 and 183).
“Sacrifice and the public cults were selected in the same ways as the magistrates. Temples were built out of public funds, taxes were levied for the support of certain cults� (Ferguson, 182). To wear the label “pious� a citizen of the community “had to respect and practice the civic cult and the priest who discharged his tasks faithfully were called pious� (Ferguson, 183). Rome identified herself by her civic cults which gave great importance to them. Ferguson notes, that “rather than combat the patriotic cults, the imperial religion was associated with them. …Images of the emperor and sanctuaries for the imperial cult were set up on the sacred precincts of the civic cult…The important cults were those joined to the emperor and national god; the other cults declined� (Ferguson, 183). Augustus played an important role not only in governmental affairs but also in religious affairs, he “revived old cults, filled vacant priesthoods, and rebuilt eighty-two new temples. He identified himself and his rule with old cults and instituted new ones…The Augustan restoration was another demonstration of the close ties between civic life and religious observation� (Ferguson, 183-184).

Works Cited:
Everett Fergurson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd Ed. Eerdmands, 2003

Alexander the Great and His influence…

Alexander the Great is an important character in our study of the backgrounds of early Christianity. Alexander is the son of Philip II a Macedonian king that eventually “became ruler of all Greece after the battle of Chaerona in 338 B.C. Probably on of the early important influences on young Alexander’s life that will be impact his later love of Greek culture is his early educationally training by Aristotle. One of his chief contributions to the regions around the Mediterranean is that “he accelerated the pace of change� (Ferguson, 13). Alexander was a skilled military leader and “in his conquests Alexander recognized and accepted what he found. He came to preserve and not destroy, so he retained the governmental systems he found…he showed his Greek feeling by founding Greek cities. These became centers for the diffusion of Greek culture� (Ferguson, 12). Along with the military superiority of Greece, Alexander’s influence on the Mediterranean world can be seen in the following ten areas:
“(1) The movement of Greeks abroad (Ferguson, 13)
“(2) The accelerated speed of the conquest by Greek culture� Alexander’s conquests carried Greek culture “farther inland and hastened its acceptance in more areas by more people� (Ferguson, 14). Ferguson also mentions that this dissemination of Greek culture will have a significant impact on the Near East, as well as the Jews and “in time the real differentiation became a way of life, culture not descent� (Ferguson, 14).
“(3) The emergence of one world economically. Alexander established one currency, silver coins based on the Attic standard� (Ferguson, 14).
“(4) The further spread of the Greek language…the form of the Greek language that emerged is called koine (common) Greek, and is largely based on the Attic dialect� (Ferguson, 14).
“(5) A body of ideas accepted by all. A far larger proportion of the non-Greek population acquired a modicum of Greek ideas�(Ferguson, 14).
“(6) A higher level of education� (Ferguson, 14).
“(7) The spread of Greek deities and cultus…Greek deities were identified with native deities and vice versa� (Ferguson, 14)
“(8) The emergence of philosophy as representing a way of life (Ferguson, 14).
“(9) The framework of society around the polis…Cities – rather than temple-states, villages, or the country side – became the bases of society…along side this social development was the decline in the political importance of city-states� (Ferguson, 14).
“(10) Increase in individualism� (Ferguson, 14).

Alexander’s successors also influence the Mediterranean a great deal. After Alexander’s death, his military leaders tried to stabilize the kingdom for Alexander’s “half-wit brother and the son of his wife Roxanne, still unborn at the time of his death� (Ferguson, 15). Ferguson highlights the more significant of Alexander’s successors, and they are as follows: “Antipater and is son Cassander, who gained control of Macedonia; Lysimachus, who ruled in Thrace; Ptolemy I, who secured Egypt; and Antigonus, whose base of operations was Asia� (Ferguson, 16).

I will look briefly at two of this kingdoms:

Ptolemies – Egypt

“Each Egyptian king in the Hellenistic age wore the name of the dynasty’s founder, Ptolemy, son of Lagus, a Macedonian noble� (Ferguson, 16). This dynasty “founded or developed only three Greek cities –Alexandria, Naucratis, and Ptolemais� and “by 200 Alexandria was the greatest city of the Mediterranean world and was surpassed only by Rome� (Ferguson 17-16).

Seleucids – Syria

“The names Seleucus and Antiochus alternate through the Seleucid dynasty� (Ferguson, 18). This empire “had three nerve centers – Ionia (Sardis), Syria (Antioch), and Babylonia (Seleucia) – but was finally reduced to the middle region� (Ferguson, 19).

In each of these kingdoms the spread of Greek culture was continued, and with the beginning of the rise of Rome each one of these kingdoms were finally overtaken and made apart of the Roman Empire.

Works Cited:
1. Everett Ferguson, Backgrounds of Early Christianity, 3rd. Ed. Eerdmands, 2003